LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES
LOWER PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES
The palaeolithic culture may be divided into three periods based on the type of tools, social and economic changes, nature of habitation and a few other criteria. It begins with the Lower Palaeolithic Culture as we will be discussing in this Sub-section. Brian Fagan points out that four criteria have been commonly used to define a ‘human’. First, the brain size that should be more than 600 cubic centimeters. Secondly, Evolution of Humankind 53 possession of language, which can be identified from the patterns found inside the brain case. Third, having a human-like precision grip and opposable thumb. And lastly, the ability to manufacture tools.
Who were the first tool makers or the first ‘humans’ has been an enigma in prehistory. The human species named Australopithecus garhi, dated to 2.5 million years ago is an interesting find in this context. The specie’s brain size was one-third of that of the early humans and features were ape-like. But bones of deer and antelope, found nearby the fossils of Australopithecus garhi, had cut marks from stone tools. Although no tools have been found yet such evidence makes the identity of the first tool-makers difficult to ascertain. Moreover, evidence suggests that these early human species were meat eaters and used some sort of stone tools. The tools made by the Homo habilis were simple and crude tools which were first found are believed to have existed around 2.5 million years ago. The technology associated with them is called the Oldowan tool technology, named after Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, the place where these tools were first discovered. Chopper-chopping tools are considered theearliest tools. These were generally made by percussion method
Nicholas Toth (History of Humanity, 1996) has argued that the first tool-makers had a clear understanding of the potential of the tool, as well as the mechanics of the tool technology. Tool-making required good hand-eye coordination, ability to recognize acute angles in stone and mental processing for shaping a tool. The shapes and edges in a stone thus make it possible to identify if it was prepared as a tool by the early humans. D. Strout (2011) has shown that even the simple artefact such as the Oldowan tools, involved a complex method which consisted of careful selection of the raw material, followed by flake production and then flake detachment. Following this, working on the percussion method, tools could be produced.
The Oldowan technology was the only form of tool technology in use for more than a million years. The term ‘knapping’ has been used to describe removal of flakes from the core and the term ‘debitage’ is referred to indicate the waste material. The earliest core was simple unipolar core from which one or two flakes were removed. Later, early humans moved to more complex Levallois technique where flakes of predetermined size and shape could be removed. The earliest cores were generally called the pebble-tools. The recent research on tool usage shows that the Oldowan tools were not hunting tools and were useful in chopping or scraping plants and animals. They were mostly used to process carcasses, for skinning, opening joints and meat and breaking to open bones. Both at Olduvai Gorge and Koobi Fora (near Lake Turkana in Northern Kenya) large number of animal bones along with tools concentrated over a small area have been found. With the presence of other predators, absence of the discovery of fire or domestication of animals at this stage, the early hominids were mostly dependent on opportunistic foraging for meat
Steven Mithen (1995) believes that the cognitive or learning and understanding ability of the early humans was important as it was a method of understanding their surroundings. Social intelligence might have also evolved with these changes that could be seen in terms of subsistence pattern, tool making etc. Anthropologist Robin Dunbar (in Fagan, 2014) has argued that Homo habilis must have lived in groups, as it was an essential survival strategy. G. Clarke (in Fagan, 2014) suggests that they probably made some kind of shelter with branches supported by stone structure. Another development associated with this period is communication skills. They must have been using grunts and gestures to communicate. The ability to interact with others would have paved way for other complex social interactions, which would have further contributed to the increase in their cognitive abilities.
The coming of the Homo Erectus has been associated with not only biological changes but also significant changes in the tool technology. These early humans were associated with the Acheulian tool technology, named after the site named Saint Acheul in France. This technology involved bifacial tools i.e. flaking was done on both sides and these tools were thus sharper and better. They were multipurpose tools, which were used for wood-working, scraping skin as well as butchering animals. Tools such as hand-axes and the cleavers come into picture for the first time and proved to be very useful as they could be sharpened multiple times. Evidence of butchery and big-game hunting have been found at sites such as Boxgrove (West Sussex, England), and Ambrona and Torralba (Central Spain). At Ambrona and Torralba, crude hand-axes, cleavers, scrappers and cutting tools have also been found. Evidence indicates that big animals such as elephants, rhinoceros, bison, deer etc. were dismembered in these sites. Many scholars believe that these sites represent sophisticated hunting with farsightedness and planning.
The most characteristic tool of the Acheulean technology was the hand-axe, a teardrop shaped tool. Based on the innovations in tool technology,the Acheulian technology can be divided into early and late phase. Production of large flakes called blanks, suitable for shaping into a hand-axe was a key innovation of early Acheulean technology though in this phase the hand-axes were small and symmetrical tools. The Homo Erectus were better hunters and could use such hand-axes as projectiles. Thus, the handaxe could be used both as a tool as well as a weapon. Another important tool was the cleaver, which was a large flake with a straight cutting edge at one end and shows no signs of retouch. These tools could be reused, re-sharpened and recycled as a flake tool. Wood, antler, and bones besides stones were used as material for producing these tools. Inclusion of meat in their diet led to other kinds of social changes, such as group formation and a distinct tool kit. The tools such as scrapers, cleavers, side-scrapers, bola stones and others were simple, efficient tools which were produced at this time.
By the later phase of Acheulian technology, tools were produced using prepared core technique i.e. first, the core was knapped and then flakes were produced to make the desired tool. A distinct lithic assemblage associated with Lower Palaeolithic technology is the Clactonian technique, named after the site Clacton-on-Sea, Essex, England. As per Henry Breuil’s (in M.Y. Ohel, 1978) characterization of these tools, they were large, wide and thick flakes, produced by block-on-block method. These were considered distinct from the Acheulian tools. However, many recent scholars such as Ohel and others do not see Clactonian technique as a distinct tool technology but instead, as constituting part of the flaking process. This method is sometimes understood as Lower Palaeolithictool culture without the hand axe. Many scholars hold this method as a precursor to the Levallois technique
Homo Erectus were the first group to move out of Africa which again reflected their adaptive quality. They could adapt to harsher climates from the Savanna in East Africa to Java, Northern Africa, Europe, Asia, etc. They were also associated with the ability to control fire. Earliest evidence of hearth-like arrangements has been discovered from Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, dated 1.8 million years ago. Other sites such as Swartkrans (South Africa) and Chesowanya (Rift Valley, Kenya) have also shown frequent use of controlled fire along with ash and bone fragments. Similarly, at Gesher Benot-Ya’agov in Israel, dated to 790,000 years, charred wood and seeds have been discovered. In Zhoukoudian Caves in Beijing, China dated to 400,000 years, evidence of charcoal, burned bone fragments and ash accumulation in hearth indicates that the hominids used fire. They made flakes from quartz. They also made chopper, scrapers, awls, crude points and other artefacts.
The subsistence pattern of the Lower Palaeolithic period was based on hunting, scavenging as well as gathering plant food. They probably by now had better understanding of the seasons. They lived in large bands and sometimes when there was abundant plantfood, they lived in smaller bands. This would reflect considerable social intelligence and flexibility. They had a well area (region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left side of the hominid brain with functions linked to speech production) associated with speech. Therefore, on the basis of this evidence it is inferred that the hominids might have had the potential for articulate speech. Development of language gave stimulus to development of brain besides being a means of communication in addition to gestures and grunts. The Lower Palaeolithic culture reflects the evolutionary processes from making simple Oldowan tools to more complex Acheulian tools. Along with the biological changes which marked the foundation of a human society, transformations could be seen in terms of the subsistence pattern, control of fire, group formation and language.
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